Evolution of materials throughout art history

    The art tradition has seen countless progressions from fluctuating purposes of art, change in subject matter, inventions of art mediums and methods throughout the centuries. The physical nature of an artwork remains one of the central approaches to understanding and perceiving art. The medium an artist uses, contributes to the idea’s representation. Art works from different art movements carry originality, often owing to the tools and techniques used by the artists. From the life-like sculptures by Romans to fine brushwork by impressionists, the art world continues to embrace and foster new mediums of expression with each movement.

    Art has been practiced for over a thousand years. Earliest evidence of materials used were of cave paintings and stone carvings found in archeological sites. Paintings from Lascaux and Chauvet caves in Europe, stamps seals representing animals of Harappan civilization and stone sculptures from Indian temples remain the earliest markers to trace the journey of evolution of art materials and techniques.

     Stonewalls of the cave served as a base over which natural pigments extracted from minerals ranging from manganese, iron oxide, to charcoal were used. In ancient Egyptian art, native stones were crushed to make pigments to be applied on wooden and stone walls. Their intricate relief sculptures were embellished with gold and silver. Carvings were made on softer stones using copper chisels and stone tools; and were shaped by abrasive sand. The sculpture traditions from Greece and Rome employed bronze and Romans more often than the Greeks used marble. During the Greek periods a diverse range of art materials emerged for sculpting, drawing and painting. Terracotta clay was used for molding items such as funerary jars for instance the Terracotta Krater from the Dipyphon cemetery. The history of art has seen an array of vibrant stone, glass assemblage, originating from Mesopotamia, a tradition that was taken forward by the Romans using expensive gems and metals like gold. The Romans continued with a similar subject matter of the Greeks. Mosaic and stained glass designs served decorative purposes in religious spaces. The renaissance was a period that saw multifarious artistic developments primarily due the rise of humanism in Europe that launched scientific experimentation and innovations. Fresco was another vibrant art technique across cultures that can be traced back to cave paintings of Sigiriya Rock, Sri Lanka or the Bull-leaping Fresco of Crete. When this technique reached Italian artists of the Renaissane, the term “Fresco” was coined, derived from the italian term fresco meaning fresh. Fresh pigments were applied on thin layers of wet lime plaster and allowed to dry leaving behind a matte finish. One of the most elaborate and well preserved frescoes was made by Michaelangeo of the Sistine Chapel. A variety of materials were used by renaissance artists.

The transience of chalk resulted in artists like Leonardo Da Vinci, Jan Van Eyck and Raphael to use metalpoint, a common technique to work on wood and thick paper. A sharp rod made out of metals such as gold, silver or copper left a mark on the coated surfaces of wooden panels. 

    Each metal oxidized to reveal their respective colours on the surface that helped artists to give sketches different hues. Before the popularity of the canvas, wooden panels were used for painting. Single or multiple slabs of wood were curated, dried and sanded to create a smooth surface to work on. However, wooden panels were heavy and difficult to work on, the flexibility and light weight of linen-canvas led to its quick popularity across the continent. Fabric played a crucial role in the evolution of art materials. Apart from serving as a surface to paint on, textile took on a diverse form of artistic expression. The origin of textile art lies in several folk traditions dating back to prehistoric times. The purpose of fabric goes beyond utility. For centuries, textiles have been used as decorative items like rugs and tapestries. Artists incorporated a large variety of fabrics ranging from silks to linen to create desired imagery through embroidery and weaving techniques.

    One of the oldest painting techniques was Tempera. A tradition seen in older Chinese, Mycenaean art works that gained prominence during the renaissance. Though its origins remain unclear, studies have shown different techniques of Tempera. 

    Most frequently, pigments were mixed with water-soluble binders - often egg yolk, that once dried created a synthetic texture similar to acrylic. With the popularity of canvas growing, it was soon overshadowed by oil paint. Tempera was unsuitable for surfaces other than wooden panels such as canvas or paper due to its tendency to crack once dried. Jan van Eyck replaced water-soluble binders like egg yolk with oil. Unlike Tempera, oil paint was thick and provided highly saturated pigmentation, increasing the depth of the painting. Its ability to smoothly blend in allowed artists to create realistic and three-dimensional scenes that were gaining prominence post the middle ages. Other oil mediums such as oil pastels flourished during the baroque movement and were extensively used in later art periods.

    Impressionist artists’ techniques relied on oil paints, pastels and watercolors. Their ability to cast rough impressions of scenery, capturing fleeting moments led to their extensive use during the impressionist and post-impressionist periods.    

    The industrial revolution changed the landscape of art rapidly, providing a large variety of art material. Artists incorporated a variety of tools other than conventional brushes to create textures. Since impressionists painted in real-time, the use of soft paper, cloth, sponges and knives enabled quick capturing of the changing light. The desired incomplete image was created, allowing the viewers’ eyes to form the painting as a whole. New pigments were added to palettes such as cobalt blue and chromium green. Modern artists turned to synthetic paints like acrylic due to their adaptability and versatility. The quick drying medium allowed artists to paint layers without having to wait for long periods of time. It mimicked other traditional mediums through changing techniques of usage - with water as a medium it could give a watercolour-like effect and on mixing with certain solvents a smooth blended effect similar to oil paint could be achieved. Its compatibility with most surfaces and durability made it a practical choice for most modern artists. 

However, this was merely the beginning of artistic evolution. Scientific discovery led to the invention of a completely new medium - photography. The digital age brought forth manipulation of images through software programs such as Adobe and AI tools, enabling artists to create a variety of effects that are compatible with modern ideas of life.  

Influence on use of materials

    The fluctuating trends in material usage was largely dependent on socio-economic and cultural factors. Along with transfer of ideas, the art landscape has seen development of resources.

Material usage was majorly influenced by availability of raw materials. Egyptian, Asian and European cave paintings share similar fresco techniques however the pigments used were exclusive to their regions. Iron(III) oxide in Lascaux, orpiment in Egypt, minerals native to these areas were respectively used to create hues of yellow. Expanding civilizations resulted in cultural exchanges and trade routes interconnecting continents. Lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan to Egypt and India for its revered blue hue. Political leaders including Egyptian pharaohs commissioned artists to embody gold and rare gemstones within art works to represent the wealth of the empire. Trade routes were responsible for the introduction of several art materials and styles. Sculpture traditions of Gandhara and Gaul reflected in Roman sculptures due to trade routes that transferred raw materials and goods to Europe. Several materials have disappeared from use over time due to their scarcity or high costs such as gemstones, gold and silver; while others proved to be extremely toxic such as paints containing arsenic. Humanism brought forth scientific discovery that contributed largely to understanding and improving art tools and techniques. Fresco and tempera were refined and modified by Italian artists. Experimentation with new solvents lead to invention of oil paints and acrylic. The change in subject matter and methods of painting resulted in adaptation of tools. Impressionists’ ‘Plein air’ required artists to be able to carry materials with ease, thus emerging tubed paints and compact palettes. The industrial revolution of the 18th-19th century led to the mass production of pre-mixed paints with diverse shades. Although, the extensive use of chemicals and toxic substances released in the process of expanding and simplifying art production, soon reflected on the environment. The increasing awareness of sustainability has expanded the boundaries of art mediums. Contemporary artists are employing recycled items such as plastic and paper to create art works. Digital tools serve an alternative that could potentially eliminate the art world’s toxic wastes.

Contemporary approach towards art materials

    The evolution of art materials has led to a wide variety of options to choose from. Art was made using tools and materials readily available until experimentation and curiosity led to new inventions. Today, these traditional art techniques have been carried forward and adopted according to artists’ preferences. Artists now have the luxury to use a plethora of art materials for representation rather than being constrained by limited resources. This transformed the approach towards art materials. Beyond utility, contemporary artists can deliberately select tools to create effects that successfully represent their ideas. An evidence of this evolution of approach is the Cloud Gate by Anish Kapoor. Behind this stainless steel sculpture, lies the artist’s thoughtful consideration that extends beyond the material’s durability and resilience. The material allowed him to impart his idea of mirroring the industrial world.

    Other works include Ravi Prakash’s sculpture ‘Mother Nature is in Pain’ created by weaving and molding wires. The artist chose this material due to its flexibility and the harsh effect it creates to symbolize the impact of climate change on earth. Contemporary artists are embracing new concepts, going beyond conventional tools, often challenging ideas of art.

    Artists have modified traditional materials and techniques to explore their relationship with the contemporary world. Humanity’s innovation has pushed the boundaries of the art world, exposing an array of possibilities.